Preprint at https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.07.21256809v1 (2021). 2d)19. Lancet 397, 13511362 (2021). Artificial Intelligence Augmentation of Radiologist Performance in In this review, we discuss the biosynthesis and relevant structural features of the viral spike as a basis for understanding differences of its presentation in current COVID-19 vaccines. Thess, A. et al. 7, eabe5575 (2021). Janssen-Johnson&Johnson and Gamaleya-Institute use the authentic SARS-CoV-2 S protein signal sequence19,67, whereas CanSino replaced it with that of human tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) (Fig. Article J. Med. JAMA 325, 12411243 (2021). Collectively, there are subtle differences between the two vaccines, both with respect to the RNA and the LNP carriers, and a higher amount of RNA per dose is used in the Moderna vaccine (100g) than in the BioNTech-Pfizer vaccine (30g)46,47. Persistence of antigen expression may be a distinctive feature of adenovirus vector vaccines, and has been proposed to contribute to induction of sustained immune responses and long-lasting immunity (reviewed in41). Viruses 13, 54 (2021). ; Visualization: F.X.H. 1b) (as in mRNA and adenovirus vector vaccines as well as for production of recombinant subunit vaccines), the pathway of biosynthesis is very similar. Coronavirus - BBC News We also address the grey matter of additional variables, such as ill-defined downstream production processes and purity of vaccines as well as differences in triggering sensors of innate immunity. Science Translational Medicine. McMahan, K. et al. Rogers, T. F. et al. PLoS ONE 7, e41451 (2012). To reach this conclusion, the USC researchers studied the rates of symptom incidence in two . Rubin, R. COVID-19 vaccines vs variantsdetermining how much immunity is enough. This quantitative aspect is important for future analyses of the impact of waning immunity on protection and decisions about optimal timings of booster immunizations. According to research published in Rhinology, COVID-19 can cause a loss of taste and smell even without congestion. Immunol. The Differences Between COVID-19 and the Common Cold - Verywell Family Sci. Rochelle Walensky, director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during a meeting with President Biden and members of the White House Covid-19 Response Team on the Omicron . Coronaviruses were first discovered in the . 21, 950961 (2021). Vaccine 29, 52035209 (2011). Mild or Moderate Covid-19 | NEJM 13, 43 (2021). Lancet Infect. The first category consists of mRNA and adenoviral vector vaccines (herein referred to as genetic vaccines, sections: Genetic vaccinesgeneral, mRNA vaccines, Adenovirus-vector vaccines), both of which do not contain the spike protein but provide genetic information for its biosynthesis in body cells of the vaccinee. For meaningful conclusions, studies on these topics will require head-to-head comparisons of vaccines, and corresponding publications are expected to expand rapidly in the near future. Rev. Furthermore, S1 may dissociate from recombinantly produced spikes after furin cleavage in the TGN (shedding) and allow S2 to convert into its post-fusion conformation in the absence of mutations that remove the cleavage site18. Liu, C. et al. Sometimes a common cold can inhibit your sense of smell or taste, but this is due to mucus build-up and congestion. Extremely potent human monoclonal antibodies from COVID-19 convalescent patients. Fausther-Bovendo, H. & Kobinger, G. P. Pre-existing immunity against Ad vectors: humoral, cellular, and innate response, whats important? Coronavirus Rumor Control | FEMA.gov Adenoviral vectors persist in vivo and maintain activated CD8+ T cells: implications for their use as vaccines. Immunity 54, 12761289.e1276 (2021). Coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has resulted in an estimated 470,000 deaths worldwide to date. npj Vaccines 5, 91 (2020). 29 January 2023. 2). Electron microscopical pictures of the viral spikes in the Sinovac vaccine have been interpreted differently, either as displaying the pre-fusion structure86 or the post-fusion structure25,92. Wall, E. C. et al. The two mRNA vaccines in current widespread application (BioNTech-Pfizer and Moderna) (Table1) are technologically very similar. Lancet 397, 671681 (2021). Isolation of potent SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies and protection from disease in a small animal model. 2c)20,21. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03777-9 (2021). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Symptoms, Causes & Prevention CAS 5b). The two protease cleavage sites are indicated by arrows. Cleared for takeoff. Earle, K. A. et al. a Schematic of the vaccine mRNA in BionTech-Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. Uruguay quietly beats coronavirus, distinguishing itself from its South Igyrt, B. Greinacher, A. et al. van Doremalen, N. et al. Sci. Cite this article. There are open questions concerning the structure of S in the inactivated vaccines. Neither can give you COVID-19. Tumban, E. Lead SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines: expectations from phase III Trials and recommendations post-vaccine approval. N. Engl. Another BPL-inactivated whole-virus vaccine in development (by the European company Valneva) makes use of Alum in combination with CpG to induce preferentially a desired Th1 response138, and a similar effect has been attributed to the Matrix-MTM adjuvant used in the Novavax subunit vaccine99,101,102. Xia, S. et al. Dis. Neutralizing and protective human monoclonal antibodies recognizing the N-terminal domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. 2ac)20,21. duration of immunity, prevention of transmission, and protection against emerging virus variants) the availability of effective COVID-19 vaccines is an enormous relief and certainly a great success story already now. 8, 14301435 (2011). Buschmann, M. D. et al. Vaccines (Basel) 9, 65 (2021). Extensive modifications by N- and O-glycosylation occur in the compartments encountered by S during its intracellular transport18. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine. Distinguishing features of current COVID-19 vaccines: knowns and and K.S. Google Scholar. Ther.Nucleic Acids 12, 530542 (2018). Effect of an inactivated vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 on safety and immunogenicity outcomes: interim analysis of 2 randomized clinical trials. Nelson, J. et al. PubMed 4c). Corresponding scientific investigations into the mechanisms of vaccine-induced anaphylactic reactions are ongoing125. Zhang, Y. et al. Barnes, C. O. et al. Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that contain RNA (instead of DNA, like people have). Dev. Rapid isolation and profiling of a diverse panel of human monoclonal antibodies targeting the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Structural basis for enhanced infectivity and immune evasion of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Despite incompletely resolved questions (e.g. Coronavirus is mostly spread through the air, when people are in close contact with each other. Suryadevara, N. et al. However, we would like to emphasize that there is an enormous pipeline of further developments (https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines), including subunit vaccines that contain only parts of the S protein, in some instances combined with components of other viral proteins. Potently neutralizing and protective human antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. PubMed During transport, S is cleaved into S1 and S2 by the cellular protease furin in the TGN. The results from a hydrogeological study at LithiumBank Resources Corp (TSX-V:LBNK)'s 100%-owned Park Place lithium brine project, located in Alberta are "surprisingly favorable," according to analysts at Noble Capital.. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2107659 (2021). 3b)53,54. Lancet https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01462-8 (2021). The addition of a 5 cap structure is a critical part of this production step that has been improved by new technology suitable for large-scale production48,49. 1b). PubMed PubMedGoogle Scholar. It usually spreads between people who are in close contact. Teijaro, J. R. & Farber, D. L. COVID-19 vaccines: modes of immune activation and future challenges. Google Scholar. The low performance may be attributed in part to the high proportion of variants that have caused infections in the study population. In one study they collected 15 false and 15 true headlines about Covid-19. Production cell lines for the Oxford-AstraZeneca, Gamaleya and CanSino vaccines are derived from primary human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293), and for the Janssen vaccine from human embryonic retinal cells (PER.C6) (Table1). 1a)15. This adjuvant results in polarization towards a Th2 response, which has been regarded as unfavorable in the case of coronavirus and other viral infections and vaccinations118,139,140. Article Genome Med. Immunol. Ganneru, B. et al. Front. Unmodified mRNA in LNPs constitutes a competitive technology for prophylactic vaccines. Science 369, 643 (2020). Importantly, the human neutralizing antibody response in SARS-CoV-2 infection appears to be dominated by RBD-specific antibodies, whichon averagewere shown to contribute 90% of the total neutralizing activity of human post-infection sera39. A comprehensive review of the global efforts on COVID-19 vaccine development. Nat. & Bijker, E. M. A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments. Impact of ribosome activity on SARS-CoV-2 LNPbased mRNA vaccines. Google Scholar. The team ran the headlines through a rigorous fact checking. Although corresponding data do not yet exist in the public domain for the other adenoviral vector vaccines, the problem of cellular impurities may be similar, because they all depend on the lysis of production cells for releasing the engineered vector particles (section Adenovirus-vector vaccines). IUBMB Life 69, 297304 (2017). . ERendoplasmic reticulum; ERGICendoplasmic reticulum Golgi intermediate compartment; TGNTrans Golgi Network; RNPRibonucleoprotein; Viral proteins: Sspike, Mmembrane; Eenvelope; Nnucleoprotein. PubMed iPad vs. iPad Air: which is right for you? - Hartford Courant Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the highly contagious infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has had a catastrophic effect on the world's demographics resulting in more than 6 million deaths worldwide, emerging as the most consequential global health crisis since the era of the influenza Kowalczyk, A. et al. Therefore, isolation of the final product includes detergent solubilization of the cells and several steps of purification101. ACS Central Sci. a Infected cells: Subgenomic mRNAs for viral structural proteins are translated in association with the ER (S, M, and E) or in the cytoplasm (N), and virus assembly takes place in the ERGIC. FEMA helps the public distinguish between rumors and facts regarding the response to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Structural impact on SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by D614G substitution. PubMed 46, 429430 (2021). 11, 589833 (2020). Prevalent, protective, and convergent IgG recognition of SARS-CoV-2 non-RBD spike epitopes. JAMA 325, 15621565 (2021). Finn, T. M. & Egan, W. Vaccine Additives and Manufacturing Residuals in Vaccines Licensed in the United States. Preprint at https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.11.09.20228551v1 (2020). Several of the 291 candidates listed in the COVID-19 vaccine pipeline by WHO (184 pre-clinical and 107 in clinical development) (https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines, accessed on July 9, 2021), have already reached the market and are used for mass immunization. Collectively, this kind of adverse event is designated vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT). There is indirect evidence that virus strains having emerged later in the pandemic (e.g. Article 888-535-6136. Polack, F. P. et al. Science https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abj9106 (2021). Corbett, K.S. Huang, Q. proteins that help give the virus its structure and enable it to replicate. Cellular immunity predominates over humoral immunity after the first dose of COVID-19 vaccines in solid organ transplant recipients. Kremsner, P. et al. Lancet 396, 467478 (2020). Bangaru, S. et al. Wrapp, D. et al. Lancet Infect. Curr. Each monomer of S is composed of several structural elements, including the N-terminal domain (NTD) and receptor-binding domain (RBD) in S1, which occlude the S2 moiety in the native S trimer (Fig. Several of them have reached market authorization and mass production, leading to their global application on a large scale. In some cases, they could co-exist, increasing the chance of a more unfortunate outcome. J. Med.383, 26032615 (2020). Coronavirus - Wikipedia Coronavirus - State of Michigan The spike glycoprotein of the new coronavirus 2019-nCoV contains a furin-like cleavage site absent in CoV of the same clade. This enormous progress was achieved with fundamentally different vaccine technologies used in parallel. Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause respiratory illness in humans. Each spike is about 20 nm long and is composed of a trimer of the S protein. CAS BMJ 373, n958 (2021). 7, 594602 (2021). Logunov, D. Y. et al. CDC director's ABC News interview remarks about COVID-19 victims with To help spearhead significant victories . Vaccines 9, 453 (2021). Development of chimpanzee adenoviruses as vaccine vectors: challenges and successes emerging from clinical trials. A review of the challenges assessing the clinical efficacy of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. . 6, eaaz6893 (2020). Investig. Correlates of protection against SARS-CoV-2 in rhesus macaques. Sci. Interim findings from first-dose mass COVID-19 vaccination roll-out and COVID-19 hospital admissions in Scotland: a national prospective cohort study. Lancet 397, 99111 (2021). Lutz, J. et al. Correct processing of the signal peptide by signal peptidase to generate the final N-terminus of S (Fig. Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans, Adenoviral vector vaccine platforms in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates, COVID-19 vaccines: where we stand and challenges ahead, Comparative analysis of COVID-19 vaccine responses and third booster dose-induced neutralizing antibodies against Delta and Omicron variants, Versatility of live-attenuated measles viruses as platform technology for recombinant vaccines, ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) or nCoV-19-Beta (AZD2816) protect Syrian hamsters against Beta Delta and Omicron variants, A randomized controlled trial of heterologous ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 and recombinant subunit vaccine MVC-COV1901 against COVID-19, Evaluation of the immunogenicity of prime-boost vaccination with the replication-deficient viral vectored COVID-19 vaccine candidate ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines, https://github.com/NAalytics/Assemblies-of-putative-SARS-CoV2-spike-encoding-mRNA-sequences-for-vaccines-BNT-162b2-and-mRNA-1273/blob/main/Assemblies%20of%20putative%20SARS-CoV2-spike-encoding%20mRNA%20sequences%20for%20vaccines%20BNT-162b2%20and%20mRNA-1273.docx.pdf, https://www.curevac.com/en/2021/06/16/curevac-provides-update-on-phase-2b-3-trial-of-first-generation-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-cvncov/, https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/considerations-for-the-assessment-of-covid-19-vaccines-for-listing-by-who, https://patents.google.com/patent/CN111218459B/en, https://www.who.int/en/activities/tracking-SARS-CoV-2-variants/, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.20.440647v2, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01413-7, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.11.09.20228551v1, https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-558954/v1, https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2018215766, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01462-8, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03777-9, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.07.21256809v1, https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-440461/v1, https://doi.org/10.1080/08820139.2021.1904977, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.14.439844v1, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Baculovirus displaying SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD promotes neutralizing antibody production in a mouse model, Comparative effectiveness of BNT162b2 and ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccines against COVID-19, COVID-19 vaccines adverse events: potential molecular mechanisms, Neutralizing antibody and T cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern following ChAdOx-1 or BNT162b2 boosting in the elderly previously immunized with CoronaVac vaccine, SARS-Cov-2 incubation period according to vaccination status during the fifth COVID-19 wave in a tertiary-care center in Spain: a cohort study, COVID-19 two years on: development and implementation of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. 1, 131138 (2021). 4b)70. Section navigation Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Feature stories Situation reports; Media resources. Unique genomic features of fatal coronaviruses N. Engl. Zhang, J. et al. Efforts are also underway to replace existing vaccine strains and corresponding sequences for those of the most relevant circulating strains114. Med. Barouch, D. H. et al. 3,4 Although the . Abu-Raddad, L. J., Chemaitelly, H. & Butt, A. Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J., Porter, F. W. & Weissman, D. mRNA vaccinesa new era in vaccinology. Reduced neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617 by vaccine and convalescent serum. Patent WO/2018/215766 (WIPO IP Portal, 2018). Winkler, E. S. et al. Baldo, A., Leunda, A., Willemarck, N. & Pauwels, K. Environmental risk assessment of recombinant viral vector vaccines against SARS-Cov-2. CAS Research on school discipline disparities has demonstrated three key trends across the country: Black students are more likely than White students to be referred for disciplinary action for subjective infractions such as disruption or defiance compared to objective infractions such as tardiness or truancy. It consists of the trimeric full-length spike that is produced as a recombinant protein in insect Sf9 (Spodoptera frugiperda) cells using a baculovirus expression system and contains mutations to stabilize S2 (K986P and V987P) as well as to delete the furin cleavage site (682-RRAS-685 changed to QQAQ)99 (Table1 and Fig. Published information about the production process is available for two inactivated whole-virus vaccines manufactured by the Chinese companies Sinopharm and Sinovac (Table1). Hershey's faces backlash over putting trans woman on candy bar wrapper There is evidence that the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine might induce higher levels of specific T cells, whereas mRNA vaccines might induce higher antibody titers115,116,117. Hopefully, more details will become available in the near future. & Verrier, B. Tailoring mRNA vaccine to balance innate/adaptive immune response. 21, 637646 (2021). Nature 586, 578582 (2020). Cell Host Microbe 28, 586601.e586 (2020). PubMed Central Neutralising antibody activity against SARS-CoV-2 VOCs B.1.617.2 and B.1.351 by BNT162b2 vaccination. Ad26 vector-based COVID-19 vaccine encoding a prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spike immunogen induces potent humoral and cellular immune responses. 19, 3546 (2020). Dis. What Is Coronavirus? | Johns Hopkins Medicine Kustin, T. et al. Research Shows How To Spot Fake News About Coronavirus - Forbes They are called "corona" because of crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus. The S protein is in turn composed of an S1 and S2 subunit. 7, 586593 (2021). J. Med. In a note to clients, the analysts wrote that the hydrogeological study indicates Park Place hosts a combined 76.3 cubic kilometres of lithium-bearing brine, meaning . Vaccine 34, 38823893 (2016). Recent work by Kowarz et al.73 provides further evidence for alternative splice events that might lead to the formation of C-terminally truncated and therefore soluble S protein. SARS-CoV-2 Variant Classifications and Definitions Vaccine 39, 44234428 (2021). During exocytosis, virus particles encounter the protease furin in the trans-Golgi network (TGN), which cleaves the S protein into its membrane-associated S2 subunit and the distal S1 subunit at a characteristic polybasic cleavage site16. Science 372, 1108 (2021). Prof. Robert Howarth's Climate Research, Outreach Makes Waves Shaw, R. H. et al. Head-to-head comparisons of current mRNA vaccines with respect to possible differences in the efficiency of protein translation, stability or the stimulation of innate responses are not available in the literature. Lancet 397, 16461657 (2021). Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can infect a range of hosts. COVID-19 Hotline. N. Engl. The company formulates the S trimer as a nanoparticle in polysorbate 80 (PS80) detergent and uses a special proprietary saponin-based adjuvant (Matrix-M) that comprises 40nm particles composed of Quillaja saponins, cholesterol and phospholipids102,103. ACS Central Sci. Amanat, F. et al. After vaccination with mRNA vaccines, rare events of anaphylactic shock above the average incidence in the population have been reported, largely in individuals with a history of allergy123,124. Latest News Today on Covid-19, Politics, State Elections, Top India Corbett, K. S. et al. Slider with three articles shown per slide. Persistence of RNA and its expression after different routes of application (including intramuscular) appears to be short (at least in mice), with a maximum of 10 days60. Effects of pre-existing and vaccination-induced immunity against the vector are a special feature of adenovirus vector vaccines. Our major focus is on variations of the constructs for S biosynthesis in genetic vaccines and on possible conformational differences of S in conventional vaccines. One of the constituents discussed as being causally linked to anaphylaxis is polyethylene glycol (PEG), which is used in the formulation of LNPs that protect the RNA and facilitate its transfer into cells (section mRNA vaccines). Article . PubMed Central A., Whittaker, G. R. & Daniel, S. Coronavirus membrane fusion mechanism offers a potential target for antiviral development. Front. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Both the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines work by giving the body instructions for how to make a harmless protein that is a distinguishing feature of the actual virus so that when or if the vaccinated person gets exposed to the virus, their body already knows what to do to fight it off. Cagigi, A. Protein-based vaccines such as inactivated whole-virus vaccines or subunit vaccines are usually not sufficiently immunogenic on their own and require the addition of adjuvants. J. Med. These modifications (indicated in Table1 and in the discussion of individual vaccines below) include two proline mutations in S2 (K986P and V987P) at the junction between two alpha helices in the pre-fusion form to avert their fusogenic conformational switch into a long alpha helix in the post-fusion form, and mutations that abolish furin cleavage between S1 and S2 to maintain the pre-fusion trimer and to prevent shedding of S118 (Fig. Science 370, 950 (2020). Key features of the vaccines discussed in this review are summarized in Table1. Pharm. Acute allergic reactions to mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. It was suggested that the acquisition of the furin-cleavage site in the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was essential for zoonotic transfer to humans. COVID-19, short for "coronavirus disease 2019," is caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. The energy gained by the formation of this hairpin-like structure, in which the fusion peptide is juxtaposed to the C-terminal membrane anchor, is the driving force for viral membrane fusion during entry22. Evidence for increased breakthrough rates of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in BNT162b2-mRNA-vaccinated individuals. Lancet Respiratory Med. Features, Evaluation, and Treatment of Coronavirus (COVID-19) Effectiveness of Covid-19 vaccines against the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant. Distinguishing feature definition: If you can distinguish one thing from another or distinguish between two things, you can. JCI Insight 4, e123158 (2019). 2c). Robbiani, D. F. et al. Voss, W. N. et al. Google Scholar. Choe, H. & Farzan, M. How SARS-CoV-2 first adapted in humans. Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J. Adjuvants for coronavirus vaccines. Expert Rev. Jagannathan, P. & Wang, T. T. Immunity after SARS-CoV-2 infections. Conceptualization: F.X.H. Ke, Z. et al. Some people infected with the coronavirus have mild COVID-19 illness, and others have no symptoms at all. No, It's Not Surprising That A Nurse Got COVID-19 After His First Distinguishing features of current COVID-19 vaccines: knowns and unknowns of antigen presentation and modes of action F. Heinz, K. Stiasny Published 16 August 2021 Biology NPJ Vaccines COVID-19 vaccines were developed with an unprecedented pace since the beginning of the pandemic. & Lor, K. Immune responses induced by mRNA vaccination in mice, monkeys and humans. Matrix-M adjuvant induces local recruitment, activation and maturation of central immune cells in absence of antigen. In addition, the viral DNA itself can be sensed after endosomal rupture by cytosolic DNA sensors such as cGAS and the inflammasome, resulting in downstream signaling cascades for producing antiviral factors such as type I interferons41. C. R. Biol. Antiviral Res 176, 104742104742 (2020). Mol. All of these distinguishing features might provide clues to yet unresolved vaccine-specific determinants of immune responses, efficacy, and potentially adverse reactions. Human Coronavirus Types | CDC In both instances, the virus is grown in Vero cells and inactivated by beta-propiolactone (BPL), which is used as an inactivating agent for other viral vaccines, including rabies vaccines85. The research team ran two studies, enlisting 1700 adults. In this case, seropositivity is negligible in Europe (zero in the UK,64) and low in Africa (9% in Gambian adults,64,131). Interim guidance has been issued by the World Health Organization and by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [ 2,3 ]. There is an urgent need to clarify the pathogenic mechanism underlying the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination induces functionally diverse antibodies to NTD, RBD and S2.